Indian
nationalist leader Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, more commonly known as Mahatma
Gandhi, was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Kathiawar, India, which was
then part of the British Empire. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, served as a
chief minister in Porbandar and other states in western India. His mother,
Putlibai, was a deeply religious woman who fasted regularly. Gandhi grew up
worshiping the Hindu god Vishnu and following Jainism, a morally rigorous
ancient Indian religion that espoused non-violence, fasting, meditation and
vegetarianism.
Young Gandhi was a shy, unremarkable
student who was so timid that he slept with the lights on even as a teenager.
At the age of 13, he wed Kasturba Makanji, a merchant’s daughter, in an
arranged marriage. In the ensuing years, the teenager rebelled by smoking,
eating meat and stealing change from household servants.
In 1885,
Gandhi endured the passing of his father and shortly after that the death of
his young baby. Although Gandhi was interested in becoming a doctor, his father
had hoped he would also become a government minister, so his family steered him
to enter the legal profession. Shortly after the birth of the first of four
surviving sons, 18-year-old Gandhi sailed for London, England, in 1888 to study
law. The young Indian struggled with the transition to Western culture, and
during his three-year stay in London, he became more committed to a meatless
diet, joining the executive committee of the London Vegetarian Society, and
started to read a variety of sacred texts to learn more about world
religions.
Upon returning to India in 1891,
Gandhi learned that his mother had died just weeks earlier. Then, he struggled
to gain his footing as a lawyer. In his first courtroom case, a nervous Gandhi
blanked when the time came to cross-examine a witness. He immediately fled the
courtroom after reimbursing his client for his legal fees. After struggling to
find work in India, Gandhi obtained a one-year contract to perform legal
services in South Africa. Shortly after the birth of another son, he sailed for
Durban in the South African state of Natal in April 1893.
SPIRITUAL
AND POLITICAL LEADER
When
Gandhi arrived in South Africa, he was quickly appalled by the discrimination
and racial segregation faced by Indian immigrants at the hands of white British
and Boer authorities. Upon his first appearance in a Durban courtroom, Gandhi
was asked to remove his turban. He refused and left the court instead. The
Natal Advertiser mocked him in print as “an unwelcome visitor.”
A seminal moment in Gandhi’s life
occurred days later on June 7, 1893, during a train trip to Pretoria when a
white man objected to his presence in the first-class railway compartment,
although he had a ticket. Refusing to move to the back of the train, Gandhi was
forcibly removed and thrown off the train at a station in Pietermaritzburg. His
act of civil disobedience awoke in him a determination to devote himself to
fighting the “deep disease of color prejudice.” He vowed that night to “try, if
possible, to root out the disease and suffer hardships in the process.” From
that night forward, the small, unassuming man would grow into a giant force for
civil rights.
Gandhi formed the Natal Indian
Congress in 1894 to fight discrimination. At the end of his year-long contract,
he prepared to return to India until he learned at his farewell party of a bill
before the Natal Legislative Assembly that would deprive Indians of the right
to vote. Fellow immigrants convinced Gandhi to stay and lead the fight against
the legislation. Although Gandhi could not prevent the law’s passage, he drew
international attention to the injustice.
After a brief trip to India in late
1896 and early 1897, Gandhi returned to South Africa with his wife and two
children. Kasturba would give birth to two more sons in South Africa, one in
1897 and one in 1900. Gandhi ran a thriving legal practice, and at the outbreak
of the Boer War, he raised an all-Indian ambulance corps of 1,100 volunteers to
support the British cause, arguing that if Indians expected to have full rights
of citizenship in the British Empire, they also needed to shoulder their
responsibilities as well.
Gandhi continued to study world
religions during his years in South Africa. “The religious spirit within me
became a living force,” he wrote of his time there. He immersed himself in
sacred Hindu spiritual texts and adopted a life of simplicity, austerity and
celibacy that was free of material goods.
In 1906, Gandhi organized his first
mass civil-disobedience campaign, which he called “Satyagraha” (“truth and
firmness”), in reaction to the Transvaal government’s new restrictions on the
rights of Indians, including the refusal to recognize Hindu marriages. After
years of protests, the government imprisoned hundreds of Indians in 1913,
including Gandhi. Under pressure, the South African government accepted a
compromise negotiated by Gandhi and General Jan Christian Smuts that included
recognition of Hindu marriages and the abolition of a poll tax for Indians.
When Gandhi sailed from South Africa in 1914 to return home, Smuts wrote, “The
saint has left our shores, I sincerely hope forever.”
FIGHT FOR
INDIAN LIBERATION
After spending
several months in London at the outbreak of World War I, Gandhi returned in
1915 to India, which was still under the firm control of the British, and
founded an ashram in Ahmedabad open to all castes. Wearing a simple loincloth
and shawl, Gandhi lived an austere life devoted to prayer, fasting and
meditation. He became known as “Mahatma,” which means “great soul.”
In 1919, however, Gandhi had a
political reawakening when the newly enacted Rowlatt Act authorized British
authorities to imprison those suspected of sedition without trial. In response,
Gandhi called for a Satyagraha campaign of peaceful protests and strikes.
Violence broke out instead, which culminated on April 13, 1919, in the Massacre
of Amritsar when troops led by British Brigadier General Reginald Dyer fired
machine guns into a crowd of unarmed demonstrators and killed nearly 400
people. No longer able to pledge allegiance to the British government, Gandhi
returned the medals he earned for his military service in South Africa and opposed
Britain’s mandatory military draft of Indians to serve in World War I.
Gandhi became a leading figure in the
Indian home-rule movement. Calling for mass boycotts, he urged government
officials to stop working for the Crown, students to stop attending government
schools, soldiers to leave their posts and citizens to stop paying taxes and
purchasing British goods. Rather than buy British-manufactured clothes, he
began to use a portable spinning wheel to produce his own cloth, and the
spinning wheel soon became a symbol of Indian independence and self-reliance.
Gandhi assumed the leadership of the Indian National Congress and advocated a
policy of non-violence and non-cooperation to achieve home rule.
After British authorities arrested
Gandhi in 1922, he pleaded guilty to three counts of sedition. Although
sentenced to a six-year imprisonment, Gandhi was released in February 1924
after appendicitis surgery. He discovered upon his release that relations
between India’s Hindus and Muslims had devolved during his time in jail, and
when violence between the two religious groups flared again, Gandhi began a
three-week fast in the autumn of 1924 to urge unity.
THE SALT
MARCH
After
remaining away from active politics during much of the latter 1920s, Gandhi
returned in 1930 to protest Britain’s Salt Acts, which not only prohibited
Indians from collecting or selling salt—a staple of the Indian diet—but imposed
a heavy tax that hit the country’s poorest particularly hard. Gandhi planned a
new Satyagraha campaign that entailed a 390-kilometer/240-mile march to the
Arabian Sea, where he would collect salt in symbolic defiance of the government
monopoly.
“My ambition is no less than to
convert the British people through non-violence and thus make them see the
wrong they have done to India,” he wrote days before the march to the British
viceroy, Lord Irwin. Wearing a homespun white shawl and sandals and carrying a
walking stick, Gandhi set out from his religious retreat in Sabarmati on March
12, 1930, with a few dozen followers. The ranks of the marchers swelled by the
time he arrived 24 days later in the coastal town of Dandi, where he broke the
law by making salt from evaporated seawater.
The Salt March sparked similar
protests, and mass civil disobedience swept across India. Approximately 60,000
Indians were jailed for breaking the Salt Acts, including Gandhi, who was
imprisoned in May 1930. Still, the protests against the Salt Acts elevated
Gandhi into a transcendent figure around the world, and he was named Time
magazine’s “Man of the Year” for 1930.
TO ROAD
TO INDEPENDENCE
Gandhi
was released from prison in January 1931, and two months later he made an
agreement with Lord Irwin to end the Salt Satyagraha in exchange for
concessions that included the release of thousands of political prisoners. The
agreement, however, largely kept the Salt Acts intact, but it did give those
who lived on the coasts the right to harvest salt from the sea. Hoping that the
agreement would be a stepping-stone to home rule, Gandhi attended the London
Round Table Conference on Indian constitutional reform in August 1931 as the
sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference, however,
proved fruitless.
Gandhi returned to India to find
himself imprisoned once again in January 1932 during a crackdown by India’s new
viceroy, Lord Willingdon. Later that year, an incarcerated Gandhi embarked on a
six-day fast to protest the British decision to segregate the “untouchables,”
those on the lowest rung of India’s caste system, by allotting them separate
electorates. The public outcry forced the British to amend the proposal.
After his eventual release, Gandhi
left the Indian National Congress in 1934, and leadership passed to his protégé
Jawaharlal Nehru. He again stepped away from politics to focus on education,
poverty and the problems afflicting India’s rural areas.
As Great Britain found itself
engulfed in World War II in 1942, though, Gandhi launched the “Quit India”
movement that called for the immediate British withdrawal from the country. In
August 1942, the British arrested Gandhi, his wife and other leaders of the
Indian National Congress and detained them in the Aga Khan Palace in present-day
Pune. “I have not become the King’s First Minister in order to preside at the
liquidation of the British Empire,” Prime Minister Winston Churchill told
Parliament in support of the crackdown. With his health failing, Gandhi was
released after a 19-month detainment, but not before his 74-year-old wife died
in his arms in February 1944.
After the Labour Party defeated
Churchill’s Conservatives in the British general election of 1945, it began
negotiations for Indian independence with the Indian National Congress and
Mohammad Ali Jinnah’s Muslim League. Gandhi played an active role in the
negotiations, but he could not prevail in his hope for a unified India.
Instead, the final plan called for the partition of the subcontinent along
religious lines into two independent states—predominantly Hindu India and
predominantly Muslim Pakistan.
Violence between Hindus and Muslims
flared even before independence took effect on August 15, 1947. Afterwards, the
killings multiplied. Gandhi toured riot-torn areas in an appeal for peace and
fasted in an attempt to end the bloodshed. Some Hindus, however, increasingly
viewed Gandhi as a traitor for expressing sympathy toward Muslims.
ASSASINATION
In the late afternoon of January 30, 1948, the 78-year-old
Gandhi, still weakened from repeated hunger strikes, clung to his two
grandnieces as they led him from his living quarters in New Delhi’s Birla House
to a prayer meeting. Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse, upset at Gandhi’s
tolerance of Muslims, knelt before the Mahatma before pulling out a
semiautomatic pistol and shooting him three times at point-blank range. The
violent act took the life of a pacifist who spent his life preaching
non-violence. Godse and a co-conspirator were executed by hanging in November
1949, while additional conspirators were sentenced to life in prison.
DEATH AND LEGACY
Even after his death, Gandhi’s commitment to non-violence and
his belief in simple living—making his own clothes, eating a vegetarian diet
and using fasts for self-purification as well as a means of protest—have been a
beacon of hope for oppressed and marginalized people throughout the world.
Satyagraha remains one of the most potent philosophies in freedom struggles
throughout the world today, and Gandhi’s actions inspired future human rights
movements around the globe, including those of civil rights leader Martin
Luther King Jr. in the United States and Nelson Mandela in South Africa.
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